Introduction

Most people start with exercises. Good.  If we want to know something about this path we first have to experience it. Yoga offers an integrated approach of physical, emotional, mental and spiritual elements.  We reversed the normal order we as adults use of "first thinking than doing" by putting the experience first. This text is meant to help people who have questions after practical experience.The topics discussed are based on the experience of the author  teaching Yoga for some 25 years to all kinds of people, the last couple of years especially to senior and top management and leaders.

Yoga and Leadership

"The process of leadership is Be a leader"

…..Yoga is about to be able to Be……

  About this Text

           This text is a compilation of original text and text taken from  Internet, articles and books, adapted and edited for this website. Main Internet sources are: The Yoga Research and Education Center, The Sivananda Yoga center and research from the Bryn Mawr College. 

This compilation is originally made for participants of the leadership programs the Yoga courses were delivered and is based on questions and discussions with the participants.

 It is encouraging to see so many Westerners turning to Yoga and experiencing its benefits. Current estimates suggest there are up to 20 million Yoga practitioners in the United States alone. In at least ninety-nine percent of cases, their Yoga practice consists of doing Hatha-Yoga postures one or more times per week.

Clearly, even this limited approach is producing some good results. According to a report by Intersurvey Inc. dated May 12, 2000, 9 percent of Americans have tried “Yoga” (as opposed to 14 percent who have experimented with meditation of an unspecified nature and 3 percent who have tried Tai Chi). Yoga’s effectiveness has been rated 87 percent (as opposed to meditation, which came in at 85 percent, and Tai Chi at 73 percent).

But Yoga is so much more than postures, and its real power lies in the domain of meditation and self-transformation. It has been said that contemporary Yoga is highly reductionistic. This is true enough, yet I also see “fitness Yoga” as an opportunity for discovering Yoga’s deeper side: mind training leading to inner freedom and happiness, or what is called the spiritual dimension of this 5,000-year-old tradition. The postures, if done correctly, will calm our nervous system and perhaps create sufficient space in our psyche to explore breath control. Then, when yogic breathing has put us in touch with the body’s life force (prâna), we also may open to the spiritual aspects of our being.

I am less enthousiastic about teachers who impart Yoga as a mere fitness system. Anyone who calls himself or herself a Yoga teacher should know the tradition for which they speak. Yoga has had a rich history and offers a sophisticated understanding of the human mind, profound moral and philosophical teachings, and a great many practices apart from the postures.

Yoga definitely has come West. Now the challenge before us could be to unlock its  potency and relate it to personal and organizational happiness and health. For leaders it could be worthwhile  to contemplate the possibility of a future civilization that lives by yogic principles as nonharming, peace, and happiness.

Adapted from Georg Feuerstein

Yoga is the current of spirituality that has developed over a period of some five thousand years. Its three major cultural branches in the Far East are Hindu Yoga, Buddhist Yoga, and Jaina Yoga. Yoga-like systems can be found in Central and North Afrika, Persia and South Amerika. Within each of these cultures, Yoga has assumed various forms.

The most important forms are Râja-Yoga ("Royal Yoga")—also known as Pâtanjala-Yoga and Classical Yoga—Hatha-Yoga ("Forceful Yoga"), Karma-Yoga ("Yoga of Action"), Jnâna-Yoga ("Yoga of Wisdom"), Bhakti-Yoga ("Yoga of Devotion"), Mantra-Yoga ("Yoga of Power-Sounds"), Tantra-Yoga (Tantric Yoga), Kundalinî-Yoga ("Yoga of the Serpent-Power"), and Laya-Yoga ("Yoga of Absorption").

Underlying all forms of Yoga is the understanding that the human being is more than the physical body and that, through a course of discipline, it is possible to discover what this "more" is. Hindu Yoga speaks of a transcendental Self (âtman, purusha), which is eternal and inherently blissful, as our true identity. Buddhism and Jainism have their own distinct ways of describing the goal of the transformative path of Yoga.

Yoga entered the West mainly through the missionary work of Swami Vivekananda, who spoke at the Parliament of Religions in 1893. Since then Yoga has undergone a unique metamorphosis. In the hands of numerous Western Yoga teachers, most of whom have learned (Hatha-)Yoga from other Westerner teachers rather than native Indian gurus, Yoga has been tailored to suit the specific needs of their countrymen and -women. Thus, by and large, Yoga has been secularized and turned from a rigorous spiritual discipline into an "instant" fitness system. However, there also has been a continuous influx of Indian, Tibetan, Chinese, Japanes, Thai and Egyptian teachers who, with varying degrees of success, have tried to communicate the traditional teachings of Yoga.

Among the best known Indian gurus spreading Hindu Yoga in the Americas and Europe are Swami Rama Tirtha (no organization), Paramahansa Yogananda (Self-Realization Fellowship), Swami Muktananda (Siddha Yoga Dham), Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (Transcendental Meditation), Swami Satyananda Saraswati (Bihar School of Yoga), Swami Rama (Himalayan International Institute), Swami Venkatesananda (Divine Life Society), Shrila Prabhupada (Hare Krishna movement), Bhagwan Rajneesh (later "Osho," Osho International Foundation), Swami Vishnudevananda (Sivananda Yoga Centers), Swami Jyotirmayananda (Yoga Research Foundation), Sri Chinmoy (Chinmoy Mission), B. K. S. Iyengar (Iyengar Yoga Association), and the anti-guru guru Jiddu Krishnamurti (Brockwood Park). For the Netherlands we might add Saswitha, Rama Polderman and van Lysebeth.

A century after Swami Vivekananda's successful mission in the United States and Europe, the Western Yoga movement can claim perhaps 20 million members. Most of them are practitioners of one or the other system of Westernized Hatha-Yoga, with those who are spiritually motivated in their Yoga practice forming a small minority. Whatever the inherent problems of the Western Yoga movement may be, it has grown steadily over the past hundred years, and more rapidly since the late 1960s. This is undoubtedly due to a combination of factors, not least the Baby Boomers' interest in alternative healthcare and their spiritual and moral confusion. Whether or not the Western Yoga movement will continue to hold appeal for Westerners depends on its degree of integrity and authenticity. Not only must it be informed by the knowledge of modern science, but it must also secure its traditional roots in the original psychospiritual teachings.

Adapted from Georg Feuerstein

You can practice Yoga for all sorts of reasons: to remain fit; to stay healthy or recover your health; to balance your nervous system; to calm your busy mind, and to live in a more meaningful way. All these goals are worthy of our attention and pursuit.

Yet, traditionally, Yoga has for several millennia been employed as a pathway to liberation or enlightenment. Long ago, the masters of Yoga recognized that we can never be completely satisfied with life until we have found the source of happiness beyond pleasure and pain. Even when we are completely fit and healthy, enjoy a relatively balanced nervous system, and live in an apparently meaningful way, deep down we still feel ill at ease. We just have to dig deep enough to go past all the layers of limited satisfaction—the kind of satisfaction that depends on having just the right sort of external circumstance. We can easily discover whether we are truly content and happy when we lose our job, have our marriage break up, or have a good friend suddenly turn against us. In the case of a great Yoga master, these events will not cause as much as a ripple in his or her mind.

Upon enlightenment, when consciousness is free from all mental conditioning, neither pleasure nor pain will diminish our inner freedom. We are pure consciousness and one with the Source of all things. This is what the Yoga tradition calls “Self-realization.” The Self, or Spirit, is superconscious, immortal, eternally free, and unspeakably blissful. From a yogic point of view, there is no higher attainment than this; nor is there a pursuit more worthy than this. For when we have realized our true nature, as pure consciousness, whatever we do will be infused with the bliss of Self-realization. We are all right in any circumstance, and because of our inner freedom and bliss, we can enrich all situations with wisdom and compassion so as to benefit other beings.

Whatever your personal reasons for practicing Yoga may be, it is good to bear Yoga’s traditional goal in mind. This will prevent you from getting stuck with a particular achievement. Yoga seeks to recover your full potential.

1. What is the background?
Yoga is the unitive (spiritual) tradition within the great cultures of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism native to India. Today Westerners are often practicing Yoga techniques (especially postures) divorced from their traditional (sacred) background. Although the Yoga postures are very effective for maintaining and even restoring one’s physical health, the true power of Yoga lies in its capacity as a path to lasting happiness and inner freedom.

2. What does the term yoga mean?
Yoga, a word from the ancient Sanskrit language, has many meanings. Of these, two meanings are particularly relevant in regard to the yogic tradition: union and discipline. Hence Yoga has been called unitive discipline. (Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indo-European language group, is the language in which most traditional Yoga texts are written.)

3. What is a yogi?
A yogi (stem: yogin) is a male practitioner of Yoga. A female practitioner is called yoginî. Both terms are from the Sanskrit language (see under #2).

4. What is a guru?
The Sanskrit word guru means literally “heavy” or “weighty.” A guru is someone whose council is weighty or highly significant, that is, who is a teacher. According to an esoteric explanation, the syllable gu represents darkness and the syllable ru stands for removal. Thus a guru is a dispeller of spiritual darkness.

5. Do I need a guru to practice Yoga?
It depends on what you wish to accomplish. If you are primarily or exclusively interested in learning postures or breathing techniques, it is sufficient to have the guidance of a qualified Yoga instructor, at least until you have learned how to perform them correctly. But if you intend to pursue Yoga as a spiritual path, you need to be initiated, which calls for a guru.

6. How do I find a guru?
There is an old adage that states “When the disciple is ready, the teacher will come.” Essentially, this appears to hold true. We find a guru—or rather the guru finds us—when we duly prepare ourselves. We can practice Yoga’s moral disciplines and many other practices without initiation. It is better to come to a Yoga master with a healthy moral outlook and no major psychological problems.

7. What is the goal of Yoga?
Yoga’s highest purpose is to help practitioners in realizing true happiness, freedom, or enlightenment. However, Yoga has a number of secondary goals, such as physical health, mental harmony, and emotional balance. In its most integrated form, Yoga seeks to unlock our full human potential.

8. What is meant by freedom or liberation?
According to Yoga, at the deepest (or highest) level of our being, we are perfectly free. But this is not our everyday experience. In our ordinary state of consciousness, we are subject to all kinds of limitations and, most significantly, experience suffering (duhkha). Yoga is the means by which we can discover our innate freedom, and this is accomplished through an extensive process of self-purification; the cleansing of the mirror of the mind. So long as the mind is clouded, we believe ourselves to be limited individuals with a unique personal center (the ego or “I”). All our suffering arises from this false egoic identity. When the ego is transcended, we simply abide in and as our true nature, which is superconscious, unconditional, and free from suffering. This condition is variously called moksha, mukti, apavarga, kaivalya—all meaning essentiall “freedom” or “liberation.” Some authorities speak of this as “enlightenment” (bodhi). It should be clearly understood, however, that this is not merely a temporary experience. Liberation is a once-and-for-all state of complete ego-transcendence. It also is known as Self-realization or God-realization, though some schools of Yoga make a distinction between these two, arguing that Self-realization is a lower type of spiritual attainment whereas upon God-realization, we find our true identity (the Spirit) as being a part of the omnipresent, omnitemporal Being that we call God or the Divine.

9. What is meant by the Self?
The Self (âtman or purusha) is our true nature, or Spirit, which is recovered when we shun all our misconceptions about ourselves and the world around us. The Self, or transcendental Self, is our true identity as opposed to the ego, which is a false center. The ego is our misidentification with a particular body-mind and its belongings. The Self is pure Being-Consciousness free from all delusion, in fact, abiding beyond the body and the mind.
In Patanjali’s Râja-Yoga, or Classical Yoga, which is dualistic, the Self is called purusha (“man”) and is deemed completely separate from Nature (prakriti) and all its manifestations or products. In nondualistic (Vedântic) schools of Yoga, the term âtman is commonly used to refer to the ultimate or transcendental Self. This Sanskrit term literally means “self” or “oneself.” The âtman is conceived as being singular (eka), whereas—at least according to Patanjali’s Yoga—there are countless purushas. In other words, the viewpoint of nondualistic Yoga is that our own true identity also is the true identity of all other beings and things. The âtman is superconscious, unlimited, eternally free, and possesses all the characteristics that we usually associate with the Divine.

10. If I don’t aspire to liberation, can I still benefit from Yoga?
Absolutely. Yoga can help at all levels—physical, emotional, mental, moral, and spiritual. It begins to liberate us from the moment we begin to practice it. At the most ordinary level, it frees us from ill health and the undesirable emotional and mental states connected with an unhealthy body. It calms our mind and thus gradually enables us to see things more clearly—thereby liberating us from wrong or unproductive thoughts or attitudes. For most people, the traditional yogic ideal of ultimate liberation is too daunting. Others make a fetish out of it. Really, the soundest approach is to commit to whatever form of yogic practice and be diligent about it. Then Yoga will unfold naturally, as will a person’s inner life. It is good to know what our highest human potential is, and also what the traditional goal of Yoga is, but we should never become obsessive about this or anything else.

11. Is it ever too late to start practicing Yoga?
The straightforward answer is: No. Yoga has no upper age limit, and people taking up yogic practice in their eighties have had very positive results in terms of improved health (through Hatha-Yoga postures and breathing) and mental equanimity (through meditation). Even bedridden individuals with chronic diseases can still benefit from Yoga, though the practices must be carefully tailored to their particular needs. Since Yoga is primarily a spiritual tradition, which seeks to bring about an inner transformation, in principle all that is required is a positive intent and the capacity to practice mindfulness (that is, conscious awareness). If someone isn’t able to do bodily exercises, it is still possible to engage the mind through Yoga. Of course, in such a case one has to adjust one’s expectations and goals accordingly. At the lower end of the age scale, Yoga has been found to be beneficial for young children, though their involvement with yogic practice is necessarily different from that of adults. So long as they are able to pay attention and execute simple exercises, children can benefit greatly from Yoga.

12. What are the most important Yoga texts that I should study?

(1) The Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali, of which there are numerous translations

(2) The Bhagavad-Gîtâ, The oldest full-fledged textbook on Yoga, expounding an integral teaching of Karma-Yoga, Jnâna-Yoga, and Bhakti-Yoga.

(3) The Hatha-Yoga-Pradîpikâ of Svâtmârâma Yogendra, a classical manual on Hatha-Yoga, which also gives out the philosophy behind this branch of Yoga.

13. What are the most important English books on Yoga that an intelligent beginner should study? (in addition to the list provided in CEL module 1)

(1) The Yoga Tradition by Georg Feuerstein, which—with its over 500 large-size pages—is the most up-to-date and comprehensive reference work on the history, literature, philosophy, and practice of all traditions and branches of Yoga.

(2) The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga by Georg Feuerstein, which is a unique compilation that provides a systematic overview of the complex Yoga tradition and all its key concepts. This reference work complements The Yoga Tradition.

(3) The Tree of Yoga by B. K. S. Iyengar, which is an inspiring introduction utilizing the metaphor of the tree to explain the limbs of the yogic path. 

(4) The Essence of Yoga by Bouanchou, which is a translation of and practical commentary on the Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali that includes many stimulating questions for self-study.

(5) Tantra: The Path of Ecstasy by Georg Feuerstein, which is a systematic overview of the teachings of the important but widely misunderstood branch of Yoga called Tantrism or Tantra-Yoga.

(6) Meditation for Dummies by Stephan Bodian, which, despite the off-putting title, is a very useful practical introduction to Yoga's central art of meditation.

(7) Autobiography of a Yogi by Paramahansa Yogananda, which is a widely read and inspiring account of the extraordinary life of one of the leading modern Yoga masters.

Q: What are Yoga postures?

A: A Yoga posture is usually called an âsana, though sometimes it is called a pîtha. Both these Sanskrit words literally mean “seat.” Originally, many centuries ago, an âsana was the “seat” or platform on which the yogi sat for meditation. As the Bhagavad-Gîtâ (6:11-12) states:

Setting up a firm seat (sthîram âsanam) for himself in a clean place, neither too high nor too low and covered with kusha grass, a deer skin, and a cloth upon it, he [i.e., the yogin] should—seated on the seat, make his mind one-pointed, restrain his thoughts, and practice Yoga for self-purification. (Translation by Georg Feuerstein)

Over time the term âsana became associated with the physical position or “posture” assumed by the yogin, which is how we loosely understand the word today.

Nobody knows exactly where or how the yogic postures originated. Some authorities speculate that the earliest âsanas were spontaneous, unstructured movements of yogins responding to powerful surges of divine energy (shakti) in higher states of consciousness. These âsanas flowed one to the next, like a sacred dance, and only over many centuries did they crystallize into the more static positions we are familiar with today. Wherever the postures came from, they have—in one form or another—been around for a very long time. Archeologists have excavated, in the Indus River valley (which is now in Pakistan), clay seals c. 5000 years old that show human figure, possibly priests or deities, seated in a familiar cross-legged posture.

The earliest yogic postures were primarily used as “seats” for rituals, chanting, breath control, and meditation. These âsanas include the Lotus Posture (padma-âsana), the Accomplished, Perfect or Adept’s Posture (siddha-âsana), and the Hero Posture (vîra-âsana). Just as nobody knows where the postures came from, so also nobody knows how many there are. T. K. V. Desikachar claims that his father, T. Krishnamacharya (who died in 1989 at the age of 100 and was one of the most influential Yoga masters of the twentieth century), knew several thousand yoga âsanas. A Brazilian Yoga teacher has published a book featuring over 2,000 postures.

Most of the postures you will learn in a typical Yoga class were developed over the last thousand years by practitioners of Hatha-Yoga, the Yoga of “force.” These postures aim to improve our physical and mental flexibility and “firmness” (dridhatâ), to calm, purify, and energize our body-mind, and to “destroy” disease and death, which delivers us from the distractions and limitations of poor health and establishes a hospitable physical environment for our spiritual training.

Q: How did the Yoga postures get their names?

A: It would be nice to report that once, a long time ago, some great yogin sat down and assigned a name to each and every posture for all posterity . . . but of course this did not happen. The postures and their names no doubt evolved alongside each other over several thousand years. The names have various kinds of relationships to the postures. Some names describe the rough shape of the posture (e.g. Triangle), or how the body is arranged in the posture (Head-to-Knee, One-Foot-to-the-Head). Lots of names are taken from the natural world, from living creatures (e.g. Dog, Eagle, Camel, Locust, Frog), plant life (e.g. Tree, Lotus), or heavenly objects (e.g. Sun, Moon). Other names compare the posture to common human-made objects (e.g. Wheel, Bow, Plow, Staff, Bridge, Couch). A number of different sages and deities are memorialized in the names (e.g. Bharadvaja, Marîci, Matsyendra, Goraksha, Bhairava), even Yoga itself (yoga-âsana). There are names that remind us why we are doing the posture in the first place (e.g. Liberation, Attainment, Self-delight). Really, the names include everything about every aspect of our world, everything from birth (Womb, Fetus) to death (Corpse). Be careful not to get confused though. While the names are now mostly fixed by tradition, you will sometimes find the same posture in different manuals with different names, or different postures with the same name.

Q: How many postures are there, and which are useful for me to learn?

A: Gheranda, author of one of Hatha-Yoga’s classic instructional manuals, “Gheranda’s Collection” (Gheranda-Samhitâ), estimates that there are 840,000 postures, one for every living creature in the world. But don’t worry, you need not learn them all. Gheranda is simply saying that any movement, whether of humans or plants or animals or natural phenomena, is potentially a “seat” (the literal meaning of âsana) for divine energy and intelligence. Anyway, Gheranda continues, that of these 840,000 postures only 84 are accessible to humans, and of these he lists 32 as being most useful. A few of the older texts contain far fewer âsanas; for example, “Shiva’s Collection” (Shiva-Samhitâ) describes only four.

Contemporary Yoga manuals vary in the number of postures they teach. Usually there are around 30 or 40 poses, though one of the granddads of the genre, B.K.S. Iyengar’s Light on Yoga, first published back in the mid-60s, has exactly 200. But more than half of these are advanced back and forward bends, twists, and inversions that took Mr. Iyengar many years to master, and are not accessible to beginning students.

In my view, beginners can get by with 25 to 30 postures. Most important are the standing postures, which are the foundation of the entire practice of âsana. Mr. Iyengar describes 20 or so, and of these, maybe eight to 10 are important for beginners, including Mountain (tada-âsana), standing forward bend (uttana-âsana), Tree (vriksha-âsana), Triangle (trikona-âsana), Revolved Triangle (parivritta-trikona-âsana), Side Angle (parshva-kona-âsana), and Warrior (virabhadra-âsana). Other foundation postures include Downward Facing Dog (adho-mukha-shvan-âasana), a sitting forward bend like Head-to-Knee (janu-shirsha-âsana), so-called “baby” back bends like Locust (shalabha-âsana) and Bow (dhanur-âsana), and Shoulder Stand (sarvanga-âsana), preferably with the shoulders supported on a stack of thickly folded blankets.

There are some excellent instructional manuals available for beginners. Georg Feuerstein along with “User Friendly Yoga” master Larry Payne, has co-authored Yoga for Dummies. Rodmell Press (800-841-3123) has a couple of good beginning manuals: The Runner’s Yoga Book by Jean Couch, and How to Use Yoga by Mira Mehta. You could also learn about the postures from an instructional audio or video tape.

Q: Can I still practice the postures if I have a physical problem?

A: Just about anyone can practice the Yoga postures, regardless of age or physical abilities or limitations (whether real or imagined). I have taught Yoga to people who, for example, had lost their sight, or their hearing, or the use of their legs. Of course, for this latter group, I had to modify the traditional forms of the postures so that they could be performed sitting in a chair or lying on the floor. Many Yoga schools offer classes in restorative or gentle Yoga for people working with either temporary or permanent physical conditions.

Not all teachers, though, may be willing or qualified to work with all physical problems. If you would like to practice the postures but have concerns about an injury or special condition, be sure to talk to the teacher before you begin the class. Don’t be reluctant to question her closely. Find out what kind of training and experience she has, if she has at least a general understanding of what ails you, and if she’s comfortable working with you in a classroom setting. You might also consider, depending on your problem, hiring a teacher to give you private lessons, at least to get your practice off on the right foot. Of course, expect to pay four or five times more for these one-on-one sessions than you would for a public class.

It is important, once you begin your practice, not to get discouraged if things do not go well right away. Give yourself and your body plenty of time to adjust to the postures and discover the ways in which they work, and don’t work, for you.

Q: Should I consult a doctor before starting Hatha-Yoga?

A: If you have no serious physical problems, then no, you don’t need to consult a doctor before starting Hatha-Yoga practice. But be sure to tell the teacher if you have any aches or pains, especially in your back, neck, or knees, before the class begins. The teacher really should ask you first about any injuries. He’ll then be able to modify the postures (or avoid certain ones altogether), if necessary, to suit your needs.

However, if you have difficulties with your blood pressure or equilibrium, if you have recently had an operation (for example, on your heart, spine, or knee), if you regularly take medication, or if you are pregnant, then just to be on the safe side, check in with your doctor before starting a class. Many Yoga schools offer classes in restorative or gentle Yoga and prenatal Yoga for people with these conditions. You might also call the teacher of the class you want to start. Tell him about your condition, and see if he has some idea about how to work with you intelligently.

Q: Can I injure myself while doing Hatha-Yoga?

A: You can injure yourself crossing the street . . . if you are in a hurry and not watching out for the traffic. Students do get injured practicing Yoga–or at least the postures–but most of these injuries happen because of inattention or impatience. We often forget that the postures embody enormous power, which can cut both ways. Used wisely the postures are a time-tested tool for self-transformation and self-understanding. But used recklessly, without awareness or respect, then the possibility of injury increases considerably.

The Sanskrit âsana derives from the little verb as, which means “to sit,” but also “to be present.” The word âsana itself then continually reminds us that it is important “to be present” when practicing the postures, to listen carefully to what our body-mind is telling us or asking from us from moment to moment.

Q: Can I practice Hatha-Yoga when I have the cold or a flu?

A: Yes, you can, but whether or not you will feel like it is a whole other question. Patanjali (Yoga-Sûtra 1.30) lists nine obstacles (antarâya) to Yoga practice, and the first hindrance among these is “disease” (vyâdhi). He recognizes that it is pretty hard to practice when you have a runny nose, a hacking cough, or a headache. If you are really sick, then it might be best just to take the day off and go to bed. But if your symptoms are milder, then you might want to work up a restorative routine that will help get you back on your feet.

Compiled by the Sage Patanjali Maharishi in the Yoga Sutras, the Eight Limbs are a progressive series of steps or disciplines which purify the body and mind, ultimately leading the yogi to enlightenment. These 8 limbs are:

The Yamas or restraints (Don'ts) are divided into five moral injuctions, aimed at destroying the lower nature. They should all be practiced and developped by the letter but also more importantly in the spirit. They should all be practiced in word, thought and deed.

Ahimsa or non-violence

Satyam or truthfulness

Brahmacharya or moderation in all things (control of all senses). Also refers to celibacy

Asteya or non-stealing

Aparigraha or non-covetousness

The Niyamas or observances (Do's) are also divided into five and complete the ethical precepts started with the Yama.. These qualities are:

Saucha or purity - this internal and external cleanliness.

Santosha or contentment

Tapas or austerity

Swadhyaya or study of the sacred texts

Ishwara Pranidhana which is constantly living with an awareness of the divine Presence (surrender to God's Will if you are religious)

Postures

Regulation or control of the breath. Asanas and Pranayama form the sub-division of Raja Yoga known as Hatha-Yoga

Withdrawal of the senses in order to still the mind.

Concentration. The last 3 steps constitute the internal practice of Raja Yoga. When Dharana is achieved, it leads to the next step:

Meditation is that state of pure thought and absorption in the object of meditation. There is still duality in Dhyana. When mastered Dhyana leads to the last step:

The superconscious state. In Samadhi non-duality or oneness is experienced. This is the deepest and highest state of consciousness where body and mind have been transcended and the Yogi is one with the Self or God.

Adapted from David Benner, Bryn Mawr College

When discussing the relationship of brain and behavior, the materialist view of human experience runs into conflict with the historically dominant religious accounts. Recent studies, however, suggests that there may be a "middle view" between the two world-views. Religions, especially Buddhism, stress the role of meditation in one's spiritual growth. Meditation has tangible psychological and physiological benefits, though, which can be explained strictly in neurobiological terms. Understanding of how meditation affects the brain, and, by extension, human behavior, also gives insight into consciousness, the role of feedback loops, and the nature of the I-function.

The goal of Buddhist meditation is to detach oneself from desires and objects which are the cause of suffering. Other forms of meditation, while differing in terms of their metaphysical grounding, effectively separate the individual from the transitory nature of the world. In prayer, the effort is largely mental, but Transcendental Meditation (TM) and Zen meditation also involve the body. Body positioning is important to the meditation, and in Zen, the object is to have as little tension as possible in the body. "The body has a way of communicating outwardly to the world and inwardly to oneself. How you position your body has a lot to do with what happens with your mind and your breath . . . Although [Zen meditation] looks very disciplined, the muscles should be soft. There should be no tension in the body". The correlation of physical states with mental states in meditation reinforces the correspondence between neural functions and behavior.

Zen practice also has a revealing theory about the nature of the self, namely that it "has no core essence". Attachment to the idea of the self as a permanent thing is a cause of suffering. Instead of seeing a "soul" or a "mind" as the seat of personal identity, in Buddhism, the self is to be found in processes. Meditation, then, has the therapeutic effect of disengaging the practitioner from self-consciousness, freeing the mind. The view of the world without the construct of a permanent essence enables one to "experience reality as it really is". It is important to note that Buddhism does not distinguish mental processes from other senses. Just as seeing takes a visual object, the mind takes a mental object. Just as the eye is free to take in different visual objects, the mind is free, as well. While meditation aims to develop "single-pointedness of mind," it is ultimately to free it from external objects. The focus is on the process of breathing, in Zen, and, eventually, one can reach a state where one is not considering anything . Zen considers the "blank-mind" stage to be a higher form of consciousness because it is free from attachments.

Indeed, one of the goals of meditation is the "mindful state," which is awareness of objects, mind-states, and physical states but not attachment to them. Buddhism puts a great emphasis on empirical understanding of the world, through meditation and through observation, and the "mindful state" is one which recognizes distractions and attachments, and acknowledges them, in order to achieve awareness of one's true nature. While a person in meditation does not dwell on possible objects of consciousness, he/she is yet mindful of them - a different sort of awareness without attachment.

In addition to claiming spiritual benefits, meditation has tangible physiological effects. Studies of Transcendental Meditation reveal that during meditation, there is "an increase in the areas of the [cerebral] cortex taking part in perception of specific information and an increase in the functional relationship between the two hemispheres". These observations support the cognitive claims of the "mindful state" in Zen by showing an increase in functional awareness. Additionally, TM practice results in increased EEG coherence, blood flow to the brain, muscle relaxation, and a decrease in stress hormones ". Similarly, in Zen practice, some masters can lower the respiration rate from 12-15 breaths per minute to a mere. Long term TM practice results in greater EEG coherence; increased efficiency of information transfer in the brain; lower baseline levels of heart and respiration rates; increased stability of the autonomic nervous system; faster recovery from stress; faster reactions; and faster reflex responses. These data suggest that relaxation techniques can alter set-points and negative feedback loops which the I-function cannot alter. "Mindfulness" involves the awareness and control of physical operations that we cannot have through a structure that purports to separate "us" from some of our functions. Over-reliance on the "I-function" constitutes an attachment to certain types of behavior which we then privilege over others, falsely supposing the "I" to have a permanence over and above brain functions.

The psychological effects of meditation reinforce how mind and body affect each other, as well as support the theory that we have set-points and feedback loops in moods and mental states. For example, some drug addiction centers have used meditation techniques to help counter the strong attachment for drugs and alcohol and to empower the struggling addict to recognize the source and nature of the craving and to counter it with "right mindfulness". While controversial, Zen meditation has been used in conjunction with psychoanalysis.

A number of scientists have begun to study the medicinal effects of meditation, specifically in reducing stress-related ailments. According to Dr. Herbert Benson, 60-90% of doctor's office visits are caused by stress ". Dr. Benson notes that the neurochemical effects of meditation directly oppose the "fight-or-flight" mechanism, due to the effects meditation has on the autonomic nervous system. As a result, the effect of meditation or, in this study, prayer, on the brain is called the "relaxation response." The amygdala, part of the limbic system, controls this response. This part of the brain is also associated with religious faith since when it or the hippocampus is stimulated in surgery, patients raised in Western cultures can experience visions of angels and devils. The amygdala gives rise to both the relaxation brought about by Zen meditation and the general sense of serenity associated with spirituality. For this reason, many scientists are starting to believe that belief in religion in virtually all human societies can be explained as an evolutionary adaptation rather than an anthropological truth or the result of divine revealed truth. If this claim is true, meditation makes productive use of whatever pathways are associated with religious experience, giving a right view of experience as we are genetically disposed to see it.

Additionally, the Zen Buddhist and neurobiologist James Austin suggests that the decrease in respiration reduces neuronal firing in the medulla, most likely through corollary discharges from the central pattern generator for the diaphragm to the brain. The inhibition of the medulla causes alteration of higher-level functioning because when it is inhibited, it cannot inhibit higher functioning. Austin also claims that mental "transition periods" increase, shifting "rhythm of entry into activated states," in addition to fashioning different roles for other neurotransmitters. The alterations in bodily rhythms are consistent with the observed effects on neuronal responses in TM. Additionally, the effect on neurotransmitters explains how set-points for mood can change, if recent research suggesting roles for dopamine and serotonin in mood is accurate. Meditation could also do some of the work of the psychotropic drugs that either block or facilitate the uptake of certain neurotransmitters.

Freudianism, Neurobiology and filosophical systems like existentialism have, in large measure, looked at religion and spirituality as things to be replaced with either psychoanalysis or eliminative materialism. However, recent studies of meditation and prayer demonstrate that they are compatible with modern science and 20th Century psychology. Additionally, the areas of the brain affected by the altered consciousness-states in meditation might give insight into "where" consciousness is located, even though a definition for what consciousness is remains elusive.

Finally, many of the precepts of Buddhism, especially the transitory nature of our selves, support the ideas that the brain, as well as our understanding, is a "work in progress," and that the "I-function," is a function, not a defining notion of self.

The first 14 of Patanjali’s aphorisms listed below could be interesting for the Yuj discussion. The many books around will give a full listing if needed.

Now [begins] the exposition of Yoga. (1.1)

Yoga is the restriction (nirodha) of the fluctuations of consciousness (citta). (1.2)

Then the Seer [i.e., the transcendental Self] abides in [its] essential form. (1.3)

At other times [there is] identification [of the Self] with the fluctuations. (1.4)

Comments: In the unenlightened state, we do not consciously identify with the Self (purusha), but consider ourselves to be a particular individual with a particular character. This does not mean, however, that the Self is absent. Rather, it is merely obscured.

The fluctuations are fivefold; afflicted or unafflicted. (1.5)

Comments: The afflicted (klishta) states of consciousness are those that lead to suffering, while the unafflicted (aklishta) states are conducive to liberation. An example of the latter type is the condition of ecstatic transcendence (samâdhi).

[The five types of fluctuation are:] knowledge, misconception, conceptualization, sleep, and memory. (1.6)

Knowledge [can be derived from] perception, inference, and testimony. (1.7)

Misconception is erroneous knowledge not based on the [actual] appearance of the [underlying object]. (1.8)

Conceptualization is without [perceivable] object, following verbal knowledge. (1.9)

Sleep is a fluctuation founded on the idea (pratyaya) of the nonoccurrence [of other contents of consciousness]. (1.10)

Comments: This aphorism makes the point that the state of sleep, though we have no knowledge of it while it lasts, is nevertheless a content of consciousness that is witnessed by the transcendental Self. Patanjali uses the word pratyaya, here rendered as “idea,” to signify a particular content of consciousness.

Memory is the “nondeprivation” [i.e., retention] of experienced objects. (1.11)

The restriction of these [fluctuations is achieved] through [yogic] practice and dispassion. (1.12)

Practice (abhyâsa) is the exertion [toward gaining] stability in [that state of restriction]. (1.13)

But this [practice] is firmly grounded [only after it has been] cultivated properly and for a long time uninterruptedly. (1.14)

Iyengar Yoga, which is the most widely recognized approach to Hatha Yoga, was created by B. K. S. Iyengar, the younger brother-in-law of Shri Krishnamacharya. This style is characterized by precision performance and the aid of various props, such as cushions, benches, wood blocks, straps, and even sand bags, and hence is sometimes called “furniture Yoga.” Iyengar has trained thousands of teachers, many of whom are in the United States. His Ramamani Iyengar Memorial Yoga Institute, founded in 1974 and dedicated to his late wife Ramamani, is located in Pune, India.

In the Netherlands Iyengar yoga teachers are trained by Cle Souren and Nanda Peek.

Ashtanga Yoga originated with K. Pattabhi Jois, who was born in 1916 but has a suitably modern outlook to draw eager Western students to his Ashtanga Yoga Institute located in Mysore, India. He was a principal disciple of Shri Krishnamacharya who instructed him to teach the sequences known as Ashtanga Yoga. By the way, this Ashtanga Yoga differs from Patanjali's eightfold path, though it is theoretically grounded in it.

Bikram Yoga is the style taught by Bikram Choudhury. Bikram Choudhury, who achieved fame as the teacher of Hollywood stars, teaches at the Yoga College of India in Bombay and other locations around the world, including San Francisco and Tokyo. This is a system of 26 postures, which are performed in a standard sequence in a room heated to 100-110 degrees Fahrenheit. This approach is fairly vigorous and requires a certain fitness on the part of students.

Viniyoga is the approach developed by Shri Krishnamacharya and continued by his son T. K. V. Desikachar, whose school is located in Madras, India. As the teacher of well-known Yoga masters B. K. S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, and Indra Devi, Shri Krishnamacharya can be said to have launched a veritable Hatha-Yoga renaissance in modern times, which is still sweeping the world. Viniyoga works with what is called “sequential process,” or vinyasa-krama. The emphasis is not on achieving an external ideal form but on practicing a posture according to one’s individual needs and capacity. Regulated breathing is an important aspect of Viniyoga, and the breath is carefully coordinated with the postural movements.

Kripalu Yoga, inspired by Kripalvananda and developed by his disciple Yogi Amrit Desai, is a three-stage Yoga tailored for the needs of Western students. In the first stage, postural alignment and coordination of breath and movement are emphasized, and the postures are held for a short duration only. In the second stage, meditation is included into the practice and postures are held for prolonged periods. In the final stage, the practice of postures becomes a spontaneous “meditation in motion.” Kripalu Yoga is taught by numerous teachers around the world, and the Kripalu Center in Lenox, Massachusetts, offers a battery of classes, workshops, and retreats for beginners and advanced students. Every year, some 12,000 individuals go through the “Kripalu experience” at the Center’s 300-acre property.

Integral Yoga was developed by Swami Satchidananda, a student of the famous Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh, India. Swami Satchidananda made his debut at the Woodstock festival in 1969, where he taught the Baby Boomers to chant om, and over the years has attracted thousands of students. As the name suggests, this style aims to integrate the various aspects of the body-mind through a combination of postures, breathing techniques, deep relaxation, and meditation. Function is given preeminence over form. Integral Yoga is taught at Integral Yoga International, headquartered at Satchidananda (or Yogaville) Ashram in Buckingham, Virginia, and its over forty branches worldwide.

Integral Yoga was also the name of the yoga of Sri Aurobindo of Auroville.

Sivananda Yoga is the creation of the late Swami Vishnudevananda, also a disciple of Swami Sivananda, who established his Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Center in Montreal in 1959. He has trained over 6,000 teachers, and there are numerous Sivananda centers around the world. This style includes a series of twelve postures, the Sun Salutation sequence, breathing exercises, relaxation, and mantra chanting.

Sivananda Yoga is also the style Van Lysebeth introduced in Belgium, The Netherlands and France. The books Van Lysebeth wrote are used all over the world.

Ananda Yoga is anchored in the teachings of Paramahansa Yogananda and was developed by Swami Kriyananda, one of his disciples. This is a gentle style designed to prepare the student for meditation, and its distinguishing feature are the affirmations associated with postures. It includes Yogananda's unique energization exercises, first developed in 1917, which involve consciously directing the body's energy (life force) to different organs and limbs. The center for Ananda Yoga is the Ananda World Brotherhood Village situated in Nevada City, California, and has around 300 residents.

Kundalini Yoga is not only an independent approach of Yoga but is also the name of a style of Hatha Yoga, originated by the Sikh master Yogi Bhajan. Its purpose is to awaken the serpent power (kundalinî) by means of postures, breath control, chanting, and meditation. Yogi Bhajan, who came to the United States in 1969, is the founder and spiritual head of the Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization (3HO), which is headquartered in Los Angeles but has numerous branches around the world.

Anusara Yoga was created in 1997 by John Friend, who paraphrases the Sanskrit name as "flowing with grace," "going with the flow," or "following your heart." The declared purpose of this style of Hatha-Yoga is to integrate heart (opening to grace), universal principles of bodily alignment, and "artistic expression of the heart in which muscular stability is balanced with a joyful and expansive inner freedom."

Hidden Language Yoga was developed by the late Swami Sivananda Radha, a German-born woman student of Swami Sivananda. This style seeks to promote not only physical well-being but also self-understanding by exploring the symbolism inherent in the postures. Hidden Language Yoga is taught by the teachers of Yasodhara Ashram in Kootenay Bay, British Columbia, and its various branches.

Somatic Yoga is the creation of Eleanor Criswell-Hanna, Ed.D., a professor of psychology at Sonoma State University in California who has taught Yoga since the early 1960s. She is managing editor of Somatics journal, which was launched by her late husband, Thomas Hanna, inventor of Somatics. Somatic Yoga is an integrated approach to the harmonious development of body and mind, based both on traditional yogic principles and modern psychophysiological research. This gentle approach emphasizes visualization, very slow movement into and out of postures, conscious breathing, mindfulness, and frequent relaxation between postures.

Other styles that you may hear mentioned or see advertisements for in Yoga

Saswitha Yoga was brought to the Netherlands from Indonesia by Jan Rijks who was named Saswitha by his guru. Many Dutch teachers are trained in Saswitha yoga by Saswitha, Truus Boulogne, Hans Wesseling and Jos Plenckers.

Stichting Yoga en Vedanta was started in the Netherlands by Rama Polderman MD. The majority of the Dutch active yoga teachers come from this school.

On the next page (Click Here) you find a copy of the lay-out of the Human Autonomous nerve system taken from the excellent book by H. David Coulter  “Anatomy of Hatha Yoga“   The text below is meant as help to understand the lay-out and functioning of the autonomous nerve system in relation to our householding process.

Most processes in the body are not controlled by will directly. The autonomous nerve system takes care for the normal householding and our first reactions on external impulses. The Fight-or-Flight reaction is well-known. Many of our normal movements are controlled via reflexes (like the knee-jerk reflex in balancing our weight during walking or jumping ) of which the functioning never reaches the counsious mind. The functioning of the organs is orchestrated  according to external circumstances by the two parts of the Autonomous nerve system: The Sympathetic and the Para-sympathetic system.

As shown in the picture there is a strong correlation between increased heartrate, dilated bronchioles, impeded digestion etc. This is coordinated by the Sympathetic nerve system.

The Para-sympathetic system  will, if the need for action goes away, slow down the heart, constrict the bronchioles and stimulate the digestion.

We have no way to directly influence our householding. But by choosing indirect ways we could help ourselves in periodes when we experience for example excessive heart activity. The millions of years of human experience accumulated in the Yoga practice is optimised to help us to tune our indirect control systems. Breathing techniques are very powerfull instruments to help us.

A simple breathing exercise like breathing in for 2 counts and breathing out 4 counts (if more space is available 3 in and 6 out) will help to calm down the sympathetic nerve system and stimulate the parasympathetic and as such decrease the heart rate. These simple little exercises are very helpful in reducing stress.